New Jersey v. T.L.O.

Schenck v. United States

249 U.S. 47 (1919)

Upheld the Espionage Act conviction of a man distributing anti-draft leaflets during World War I. Justice Holmes introduced the 'clear and present danger' test for limiting free speech, stating that 'the most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre.' The clear and present danger test was later replaced by the Brandenburg incitement test.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

347 U.S. 483 (1954)

Unanimously held that racial segregation in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Chief Justice Warren wrote that 'in the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.' Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson and catalyzed the civil rights movement.

Engel v. Vitale

370 U.S. 421 (1962)

Held that government-directed prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Even a nondenominational prayer composed by a state government agency is unconstitutional when recited in public schools. Established a firm barrier between public education and state-sponsored religious activity.

Gideon v. Wainwright

372 U.S. 335 (1963)

Unanimously held that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is a fundamental right incorporated against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. States must provide attorneys for criminal defendants who cannot afford them. Clarence Earl Gideon, who had represented himself and lost, was acquitted at retrial with appointed counsel.

Miranda v. Arizona

384 U.S. 436 (1966)

Held that the Fifth Amendment's protection against self-incrimination requires law enforcement to advise suspects of their rights before custodial interrogation. The now-famous Miranda warnings include the right to remain silent, that statements may be used against the suspect, the right to counsel, and that counsel will be appointed if the suspect cannot afford one.