Court Opinions & Case Law

5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803)

Established the principle of judicial review, empowering federal courts to declare legislative and executive acts unconstitutional. Chief Justice John Marshall held that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and when a statute conflicts with it, the courts must give effect to the Constitution. This foundational decision made the judiciary a coequal branch of government.

17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819)

Upheld the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States under the Necessary and Proper Clause and held that states cannot tax federal institutions. Chief Justice Marshall established a broad interpretation of congressional power, declaring that the federal government possesses implied powers beyond those enumerated in the Constitution.

22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)

Held that the Commerce Clause grants Congress broad power to regulate interstate commerce, including navigation. States cannot grant monopolies that interfere with congressionally authorized interstate trade. Established the foundation for federal regulatory power over economic activity crossing state lines.

60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857)

Held that African Americans, whether free or enslaved, were not citizens of the United States and had no standing to sue in federal court. Chief Justice Taney also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. Widely condemned as the worst Supreme Court decision in history, it inflamed sectional tensions and contributed to the onset of the Civil War. Effectively overruled by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments.

163 U.S. 537 (1896)

Upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine. The Court ruled that Louisiana's law requiring separate railway cars for Black and white passengers did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Harlan's lone dissent declared the Constitution 'color-blind.' Overruled by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

198 U.S. 45 (1905)

Struck down a New York law limiting bakery workers to a 60-hour work week, holding it violated the Fourteenth Amendment's protection of liberty of contract. Inaugurated the 'Lochner era' of aggressive judicial review of economic regulations, which lasted until the late 1930s. Now widely criticized as judicial overreach.

249 U.S. 47 (1919)

Upheld the Espionage Act conviction of a man distributing anti-draft leaflets during World War I. Justice Holmes introduced the 'clear and present danger' test for limiting free speech, stating that 'the most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre.' The clear and present danger test was later replaced by the Brandenburg incitement test.

347 U.S. 483 (1954)

Unanimously held that racial segregation in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Chief Justice Warren wrote that 'in the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.' Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson and catalyzed the civil rights movement.

369 U.S. 186 (1962)

Held that legislative apportionment is a justiciable issue, overturning decades of precedent treating redistricting as a political question. Allowed federal courts to hear challenges to malapportioned legislative districts under the Equal Protection Clause, leading to the 'one person, one vote' principle in Reynolds v. Sims.

370 U.S. 421 (1962)

Held that government-directed prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Even a nondenominational prayer composed by a state government agency is unconstitutional when recited in public schools. Established a firm barrier between public education and state-sponsored religious activity.

372 U.S. 335 (1963)

Unanimously held that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is a fundamental right incorporated against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. States must provide attorneys for criminal defendants who cannot afford them. Clarence Earl Gideon, who had represented himself and lost, was acquitted at retrial with appointed counsel.

376 U.S. 254 (1964)

Established the 'actual malice' standard for defamation claims by public officials, requiring proof that a statement was made with knowledge of its falsity or with reckless disregard for the truth. Profoundly strengthened freedom of the press by making it far more difficult for government officials to win libel suits against critics.

379 U.S. 241 (1964)

Upheld Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited racial discrimination in places of public accommodation. The Court ruled that Congress had authority under the Commerce Clause to prohibit racial discrimination in hotels and motels serving interstate travelers.

381 U.S. 479 (1965)

Struck down a Connecticut statute criminalizing the use of contraceptives by married couples. Justice Douglas, writing for the majority, held that the Bill of Rights contains penumbras and emanations creating a constitutional right to privacy. This right to marital privacy became the foundation for subsequent decisions including Roe v. Wade.

384 U.S. 436 (1966)

Held that the Fifth Amendment's protection against self-incrimination requires law enforcement to advise suspects of their rights before custodial interrogation. The now-famous Miranda warnings include the right to remain silent, that statements may be used against the suspect, the right to counsel, and that counsel will be appointed if the suspect cannot afford one.

388 U.S. 1 (1967)

Unanimously struck down Virginia's anti-miscegenation statute banning interracial marriage as a violation of both the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. Chief Justice Warren wrote that the freedom to marry resides with the individual and cannot be infringed by the state based on racial classifications.

393 U.S. 503 (1969)

Held that students do not 'shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.' Public schools may not suppress student expression unless it would materially and substantially disrupt school operations. The wearing of black armbands to protest the Vietnam War was protected symbolic speech.

395 U.S. 444 (1969)

Established the modern incitement test for the First Amendment, holding that the government cannot punish inflammatory speech unless it is directed to inciting imminent lawless action and is likely to produce such action. Overruled the earlier 'clear and present danger' test from Schenck, providing the strongest protection for political speech.

403 U.S. 602 (1971)

Established the three-part 'Lemon test' for evaluating Establishment Clause challenges: a law must have a secular purpose, must neither advance nor inhibit religion, and must not foster excessive government entanglement with religion. Struck down state laws providing salary supplements to parochial school teachers. The test remained influential for decades before being largely supplanted by Kennedy v. Bremerton in 2022.

410 U.S. 113 (1973)

Held that a woman's right to choose an abortion is protected by the constitutional right to privacy under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Established a trimester framework governing state regulation of abortion. One of the most controversial decisions in Court history, it was overruled by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization in 2022.

418 U.S. 683 (1974)

Unanimously held that the President does not have absolute executive privilege to withhold evidence in a criminal proceeding. President Nixon was ordered to produce tape recordings and documents subpoenaed by the Watergate special prosecutor. The decision led directly to Nixon's resignation sixteen days later.

438 U.S. 265 (1978)

Held that racial quotas in university admissions violate the Equal Protection Clause and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, but that race may be considered as one factor among many in admissions decisions. Justice Powell's opinion established the diversity rationale for affirmative action that persisted until Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023).

469 U.S. 325 (1985)

Held that the Fourth Amendment applies to searches by public school officials but adopted a lower standard than probable cause. School officials need only reasonable suspicion to search a student. Balanced students' privacy interests against schools' need to maintain order and discipline.

491 U.S. 397 (1989)

Held in a 5-4 decision that flag burning is a form of symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment. Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag outside the Republican National Convention. The Court held that the government may not prohibit expression simply because society finds it disagreeable. Invalidated flag desecration statutes in 48 states.

367 U.S. 643 (1961)

Applied the exclusionary rule to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. Evidence obtained through an unreasonable search and seizure in violation of the Fourth Amendment is inadmissible in state criminal proceedings. Overruled Wolf v. Colorado (1949), which had declined to extend the exclusionary rule to the states.

323 U.S. 214 (1944)

Upheld Executive Order 9066 authorizing the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, finding the exclusion order constitutional under wartime military necessity. Justice Murphy's dissent called it the 'legalization of racism.' Widely condemned as one of the Court's worst decisions, it was effectively repudiated in Trump v. Hawaii (2018), where Chief Justice Roberts stated that Korematsu 'was gravely wrong the day it was decided.'

505 U.S. 833 (1992)

Reaffirmed Roe v. Wade's core holding that the Constitution protects a woman's right to an abortion before viability, but replaced the trimester framework with an 'undue burden' standard. States may regulate abortion so long as they do not place a substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion. Overruled by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022).

531 U.S. 98 (2000)

Halted the Florida presidential election recount ordered by the Florida Supreme Court, holding that varying recount standards across counties violated the Equal Protection Clause. The per curiam decision effectively decided the 2000 presidential election in favor of George W. Bush. The Court stated its holding was 'limited to the present circumstances.'

539 U.S. 558 (2003)

Struck down Texas's sodomy law, holding that intimate consensual sexual conduct is protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Overruled Bowers v. Hardwick (1986). Justice Kennedy wrote that adults have a liberty interest in private sexual conduct and that the state cannot demean their existence by making their private sexual conduct a crime.

554 U.S. 570 (2008)

Held for the first time that the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to keep and bear arms unconnected with service in a militia, for traditionally lawful purposes such as self-defense within the home. Justice Scalia's majority opinion struck down D.C.'s handgun ban and trigger-lock requirement but noted the right is not unlimited.

561 U.S. 742 (2010)

Incorporated the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms against state and local governments through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Extended the holding of District of Columbia v. Heller to apply to all states and municipalities, striking down Chicago's handgun ban.

558 U.S. 310 (2010)

Held that the First Amendment prohibits the government from restricting independent political expenditures by corporations, labor unions, and other associations. Overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce and parts of McConnell v. FEC. Transformed campaign finance law and led to the rise of super PACs.

570 U.S. 529 (2013)

Struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which contained the coverage formula determining which states and localities required federal preclearance before changing voting laws or procedures. Chief Justice Roberts held the formula was based on decades-old data and no longer reflected current conditions, effectively rendering Section 5 preclearance inoperable.

576 U.S. 644 (2015)

Held that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to grant same-sex marriages and recognize same-sex marriages validly performed in other states. Justice Kennedy wrote that the right to marry is a fundamental liberty, and denying same-sex couples that right violates both the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses.

579 U.S. 582 (2016)

Struck down Texas abortion clinic regulations requiring doctors to have hospital admitting privileges and clinics to meet ambulatory surgical center standards. Applied Casey's undue burden standard and held that courts must weigh a law's burdens against its benefits. Found the Texas law provided no medical benefit while substantially reducing access to abortion.

597 U.S. 215 (2022)

Overruled Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion. Justice Alito's majority opinion held that abortion is not deeply rooted in the Nation's history and traditions, and returned the authority to regulate abortion entirely to the states and the people through their elected representatives.

591 U.S. ___ (2020)

Held that the Muscogee (Creek) Nation reservation in eastern Oklahoma was never disestablished by Congress and remains 'Indian country' for purposes of the Major Crimes Act. Justice Gorsuch wrote that Congress has not broken its promises to the tribe. Major implications for criminal jurisdiction over approximately half of Oklahoma's land.

567 U.S. 519 (2012)

Upheld the Affordable Care Act's individual mandate as a valid exercise of Congress's taxing power, while holding it exceeded Commerce Clause authority. Also held that the ACA's Medicaid expansion was impermissibly coercive to the states. Chief Justice Roberts joined the liberal justices to save the law's central provision.

600 U.S. 181 (2023)

Held that race-conscious admissions programs at Harvard and the University of North Carolina violate the Equal Protection Clause. Effectively overruled Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) and ended affirmative action in college admissions. Chief Justice Roberts wrote that students must be treated as individuals, not based on race.

597 U.S. 697 (2022)

Applied the 'major questions doctrine' to hold that the EPA lacked authority under the Clean Air Act to issue regulations mandating a shift in electricity generation from coal to natural gas and renewables. Chief Justice Roberts wrote that agencies cannot claim transformative authority in cases of vast economic and political significance without clear congressional authorization.

585 U.S. 667 (2018)

Upheld President Trump's Proclamation restricting entry from several predominantly Muslim countries, finding it within the President's broad authority under the Immigration and Nationality Act. The Court applied rational basis review and rejected the Establishment Clause challenge. In dicta, Chief Justice Roberts repudiated Korematsu v. United States.

585 U.S. 296 (2018)

Held that the government generally needs a warrant to access cell-site location information (CSLI) tracking an individual's movements over time. The Court found that individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the record of their physical movements as captured by cell phones, extending Fourth Amendment protections to the digital age.

590 U.S. 644 (2020)

Held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, as such discrimination is necessarily discrimination 'because of sex.' Justice Gorsuch, writing for a 6-3 majority, applied textualist reasoning to extend workplace protections to LGBTQ employees.

597 U.S. 1 (2022)

Struck down New York's proper-cause requirement for concealed carry permits, holding that the Second and Fourteenth Amendments protect an individual's right to carry a handgun for self-defense outside the home. Established a new framework for evaluating firearms regulations, requiring the government to show the regulation is consistent with the Nation's historical tradition of firearm regulation.

597 U.S. 507 (2022)

Held that a public school football coach's post-game prayers on the fifty-yard line were protected by the Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses. The Court abandoned the Lemon test for Establishment Clause analysis, replacing it with a focus on historical practices and understandings. Significantly altered the relationship between religion and public schools.

600 U.S. 570 (2023)

Held that the First Amendment prohibits Colorado from compelling a website designer to create expressive designs that convey messages with which she disagrees, including wedding websites celebrating same-sex marriages. The Court ruled that public accommodation laws cannot compel an individual to create speech she does not believe.

600 U.S. 477 (2023)

Struck down the Biden administration's student loan forgiveness program, which would have cancelled up to $20,000 in federal student debt for eligible borrowers. Applying the major questions doctrine, the Court held that the HEROES Act did not authorize the Secretary of Education to cancel approximately $430 billion in student loans.

603 U.S. ___ (2024)

Held that former presidents enjoy absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions within their core constitutional authority and presumptive immunity for all official acts. The Court distinguished between official and unofficial conduct, finding that the nature of presidential power requires some degree of immunity to preserve the independence of the executive branch.

603 U.S. ___ (2024)

Overruled Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council (1984), eliminating the Chevron deference doctrine that had required courts to defer to reasonable agency interpretations of ambiguous statutes. The Court held that the Administrative Procedure Act requires courts to exercise independent judgment in deciding whether an agency has acted within its statutory authority.

467 U.S. 837 (1984)

Established the Chevron deference doctrine: when a statute is ambiguous, courts should defer to a federal agency's reasonable interpretation of the statute it administers. Created a two-step framework that became the most cited case in administrative law. Overruled by Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo (2024).

545 U.S. 469 (2005)

Held that the government's taking of private property for economic development satisfies the 'public use' requirement of the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause. The controversial 5-4 decision prompted widespread legislative backlash, with many states passing laws restricting eminent domain for private development.

545 U.S. 1 (2005)

Held that Congress may criminalize the production and use of homegrown marijuana even where state law permits its use for medical purposes. Under the Commerce Clause and Necessary and Proper Clause, Congress has the power to regulate local activities that substantially affect interstate commerce in the aggregate.

573 U.S. 373 (2014)

Unanimously held that police generally need a warrant to search the digital contents of a cell phone seized during an arrest. Chief Justice Roberts wrote that modern cell phones are 'such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy.' Distinguished cell phones from other items that may be searched incident to arrest.

576 U.S. 155 (2015)

Held that a municipal sign code that imposed different restrictions based on the type of sign (political, ideological, or directional) was a content-based restriction on speech subject to strict scrutiny under the First Amendment. Clarified that any law that draws distinctions based on the message conveyed is content-based regardless of the government's motive.

49 F.3d 807 (1st Cir. 1995)

Held that the menu command hierarchy of the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet program was an uncopyrightable method of operation under Section 102(b) of the Copyright Act. A landmark decision in software copyright law that distinguished between creative expression and functional elements of computer programs.

311 F.3d 435 (1st Cir. 2002)

Addressed the scope of the Armed Career Criminal Act, examining what constitutes a 'violent felony' for purposes of enhanced sentencing. The court analyzed whether prior state convictions qualified under the federal statute's residual clause.

829 F.3d 197 (2d Cir. 2016)

Held that a U.S. warrant issued under the Stored Communications Act cannot compel Microsoft to produce customer emails stored on servers located in Ireland. The decision addressed the territorial reach of U.S. law enforcement in the cloud computing era and was later superseded by the CLOUD Act of 2018.

444 F.2d 544 (2d Cir. 1971)

Initially ruled against the New York Times in the Pentagon Papers case before the Supreme Court reversed. The Second Circuit's handling of the prior restraint issue in this expedited national security case shaped understanding of press freedom during wartime and government secrecy.

804 F.3d 202 (2d Cir. 2015)

Held that Google's digitization of copyrighted books for its Google Books search engine constitutes fair use under copyright law. The court found that Google's use was transformative because it provided a new and different purpose by enabling users to search for specific terms within millions of books.

534 F.3d 181 (3d Cir. 2008)

Struck down the Child Online Protection Act (COPA) as unconstitutional, finding that less restrictive alternatives existed for protecting children from harmful material on the internet. Upheld the district court's permanent injunction against the statute on First Amendment grounds.

939 F.3d 91 (3d Cir. 2019)

Addressed the constitutionality of sex offender registration requirements under the Due Process Clause and Ex Post Facto Clause. Examined whether retroactive application of registration and notification statutes constitutes punishment requiring additional procedural protections.

857 F.3d 554 (4th Cir. 2017)

Upheld a preliminary injunction against President Trump's revised travel ban executive order, finding that it likely violated the Establishment Clause. The en banc court examined whether the executive order was motivated by anti-Muslim animus based on the President's public statements. Later vacated by the Supreme Court in Trump v. Hawaii.

849 F.3d 114 (4th Cir. 2017)

Upheld Maryland's Firearm Safety Act banning assault weapons and large-capacity magazines, holding that these weapons are not protected by the Second Amendment because they are 'weapons of war.' The en banc decision applied intermediate scrutiny and found the law substantially related to Maryland's interest in public safety.

809 F.3d 134 (5th Cir. 2015)

Upheld a preliminary injunction blocking President Obama's Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA) program, finding it likely exceeded executive authority under the Immigration and Nationality Act. The decision was affirmed by an equally divided Supreme Court.

49 F.4th 439 (5th Cir. 2022)

Upheld Texas HB 20, which prohibits large social media platforms from censoring users based on viewpoint. The court held that social media platforms are common carriers and their content moderation decisions are not protected by the First Amendment. Created a circuit split with the Eleventh Circuit, later addressed by the Supreme Court.

772 F.3d 388 (6th Cir. 2014)

Upheld state bans on same-sex marriage in Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, creating a circuit split that led the Supreme Court to grant certiorari in Obergefell v. Hodges. Judge Sutton's majority opinion applied rational basis review and deferred to democratic processes.

631 F.3d 266 (6th Cir. 2010)

Held that individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of their email accounts, and the government must obtain a warrant based on probable cause before compelling email service providers to turn over email contents. A landmark digital privacy decision predating Carpenter v. United States.

766 F.3d 648 (7th Cir. 2014)

Struck down Indiana and Wisconsin bans on same-sex marriage. Judge Posner's opinion applied heightened scrutiny and systematically dismantled each justification offered by the states for their bans, including tradition, child welfare, and democratic process arguments.

853 F.3d 339 (7th Cir. 2017)

Became the first federal appeals court to hold that Title VII's prohibition on sex discrimination encompasses discrimination based on sexual orientation. The en banc decision paved the way for the Supreme Court's ruling in Bostock v. Clayton County.

530 F.3d 724 (8th Cir. 2008)

Upheld South Dakota's informed consent law requiring doctors to advise women seeking abortions that they would be terminating the life of a 'whole, separate, unique, living human being.' The en banc court held this was a truthful, non-misleading statement of biological fact, not compelled ideological speech.

697 F.3d 678 (8th Cir. 2012)

Struck down a Missouri funeral protest buffer zone ordinance on First Amendment grounds, finding the 300-foot buffer zone unconstitutional as applied to Westboro Baptist Church protests at military funerals. Balanced free speech rights against interests in protecting funeral attendees from unwanted picketing.

762 F.3d 971 (9th Cir. 2014)

Challenged EPA's decision regarding greenhouse gas emissions from stationary sources under the Clean Air Act. The court applied Chevron deference to the agency's interpretation but remanded for further explanation of the agency's reasoning on the regulatory threshold.

886 F.3d 1179 (Fed. Cir. 2018)

Held that Google's use of Java API declaring code in Android was not fair use, reversing a jury verdict. The Federal Circuit found that Google's copying was not transformative and harmed the market for Java SE. Later reversed by the Supreme Court in Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc. (2021).

824 F.3d 919 (9th Cir. 2016)

Held en banc that the Second Amendment does not protect a right to carry a concealed weapon in public, upholding San Diego County's restrictive concealed carry permit policy. Later effectively overruled by the Supreme Court's decision in NYSRPA v. Bruen (2022).

847 F.3d 1151 (9th Cir. 2017)

Upheld a temporary restraining order blocking enforcement of President Trump's first travel ban executive order. The court rejected the government's argument that the President's immigration decisions are unreviewable by the judiciary, finding the states had standing and were likely to succeed on due process claims.

755 F.3d 1193 (10th Cir. 2014)

Struck down Utah's ban on same-sex marriage, becoming the first federal appellate court to do so after United States v. Windsor. The court applied heightened scrutiny and found that Utah's Amendment 3 violated the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment.

831 F.3d 1292 (10th Cir. 2016)

Held that the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) functions as a governmental entity for Fourth Amendment purposes when it opens and examines emails flagged as containing child pornography. Justice Gorsuch, then a circuit judge, wrote the opinion requiring suppression of evidence obtained without a warrant.

34 F.4th 1196 (11th Cir. 2022)

Struck down most provisions of Florida's social media regulation law SB 7072, holding that social media platforms' content moderation decisions are protected by the First Amendment. Created a circuit split with the Fifth Circuit's contrary decision in NetChoice v. Paxton regarding Texas's HB 20.

840 F.3d 1244 (11th Cir. 2016)

Addressed trademark issues in e-commerce, examining whether Amazon's use of a trademark in its search engine constituted trademark infringement. The court analyzed the likelihood of confusion standard in the context of online retail platforms and keyword-based product suggestions.

625 F.3d 766 (D.C. Cir. 2010)

Held that prolonged warrantless GPS tracking of a vehicle constitutes a search under the Fourth Amendment. Later affirmed by the Supreme Court in United States v. Jones (2012), which established that physical trespass to install a GPS device is a search. Foundational digital privacy decision.

758 F.3d 390 (D.C. Cir. 2014)

Initially held that the Affordable Care Act does not authorize tax subsidies for insurance purchased on federally established exchanges, only state-established exchanges. The panel decision was later vacated when the en banc court agreed to rehear the case, and the issue was ultimately resolved by the Supreme Court in King v. Burwell.

696 F.3d 7 (D.C. Cir. 2012)

Vacated EPA's Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (Transport Rule), finding the agency exceeded its authority under the Clean Air Act by requiring upwind states to reduce emissions beyond their own contributions to downwind air quality violations. Later reversed by the Supreme Court in EPA v. EME Homer City Generation.

545 F.3d 943 (Fed. Cir. 2008)

Established the machine-or-transformation test as the sole test for determining whether a process claim is patent-eligible under 35 U.S.C. Section 101. Significantly narrowed the patentability of business methods and software patents. Later modified by the Supreme Court in Bilski v. Kappos, which held the test is an important but not exclusive test.

717 F.3d 1269 (Fed. Cir. 2013)

The en banc Federal Circuit produced a fractured opinion on the patent eligibility of computer-implemented inventions under Section 101. The lack of a clear majority opinion underscored the need for Supreme Court guidance, which came in Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International (2014), establishing the two-step framework for abstract idea analysis.

580 F. App'x 985 (Fed. Cir. 2014)

Addressed design patent infringement damages in the smartphone patent wars between Apple and Samsung. The Federal Circuit considered whether damages for design patent infringement should be based on the entire product or only the infringing component, a question later resolved by the Supreme Court in Samsung Electronics v. Apple.

941 F.3d 88 (4th Cir. 2019)

Examined the scope of mine safety regulations under the Federal Mine Safety and Health Act. The court addressed whether certain workplace safety violations constituted 'significant and substantial' hazards warranting enhanced penalties and mandatory corrective action.

189 F.3d 808 (9th Cir. 1999)

Held that a social worker's warrantless entry into a family home and strip search of children, conducted under threat of removal, violated the Fourth Amendment. Established that the government cannot use child welfare investigations to circumvent constitutional protections against unreasonable searches.

786 F.3d 733 (9th Cir. 2015)

Held en banc that an actress's performance in the anti-Islam film 'Innocence of Muslims' did not create an independent copyright interest in her five-second appearance, reversing a prior panel's controversial order requiring YouTube to remove the video. Addressed the intersection of copyright and free speech.

441 F. Supp. 2d 899 (N.D. Ill. 2006)

Rejected the government's state secrets privilege defense in a case challenging AT&T's participation in the NSA's warrantless surveillance program. Held that the alleged surveillance program could be challenged without revealing classified information, addressing the tension between national security and civil liberties in the post-9/11 era.

950 F.3d 159 (3d Cir. 2020)

Addressed Fourth Amendment protections for email communications stored by third-party service providers. The court examined the scope of warrants for electronic communications and the applicability of the Third Party Doctrine in the digital age following the Supreme Court's decision in Carpenter v. United States.

985 F.3d 1032 (D.C. Cir. 2021)

Upheld a district court order requiring the Army Corps of Engineers to prepare a full environmental impact statement for the Dakota Access Pipeline's crossing under Lake Oahe. The court found that the Corps had failed to adequately consider the pipeline's potential environmental justice impacts on the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe.

817 F.3d 12 (1st Cir. 2016)

Held that Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act immunized Backpage.com from liability for sex trafficking facilitated through its classified advertisements. The court acknowledged the tragic circumstances but found that Congress had granted broad immunity to website operators for third-party content. The decision contributed to the passage of FOSTA-SESTA in 2018.

703 F.3d 149 (2d Cir. 2012)

Held that the government's prosecution of a pharmaceutical sales representative for off-label drug promotion violated the First Amendment. Found that truthful, non-misleading speech about lawful drug uses is constitutionally protected, even when used to promote off-label prescribing by physicians.

725 F.3d 197 (D.C. Cir. 2013)

Held that the President has exclusive authority to recognize foreign sovereigns and their territorial bounds, invalidating a congressional statute requiring the State Department to record 'Israel' as the birthplace of U.S. citizens born in Jerusalem upon request. Later affirmed by the Supreme Court in Zivotofsky v. Kerry.

217 F.3d 162 (3d Cir. 2000)

Struck down the Child Online Protection Act on First Amendment grounds, finding that community standards-based obscenity restrictions cannot be applied to the internet because content is available nationwide. Held that less restrictive alternatives such as filtering software could protect children without burdening adult speech.

87 F. Supp. 2d 30 (D.D.C. 2000)

Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson found Microsoft liable for maintaining its monopoly in PC operating systems through anticompetitive means, including tying Internet Explorer to Windows. The landmark antitrust ruling reshaped the technology industry, though the breakup remedy was later reversed on appeal.

400 F. Supp. 2d 707 (M.D. Pa. 2005)

Held that teaching 'intelligent design' in public school science classes violates the Establishment Clause. Judge Jones found that intelligent design is not science but a form of creationism, and that the Dover school board's policy was motivated by religious purpose. A major ruling in the evolution-creation debate.

704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010)

Struck down California's Proposition 8 ban on same-sex marriage as violating both the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses. Judge Walker conducted a full trial and made extensive findings of fact, concluding that no rational basis supported the ban. The decision was ultimately upheld through the appellate process.

952 F. Supp. 2d 638 (S.D.N.Y. 2013)

Found Apple liable for conspiring with five major publishers to fix e-book prices in violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Act. Judge Cote held that Apple orchestrated a horizontal price-fixing conspiracy using the agency model for e-book sales to raise prices industry-wide.

872 F. Supp. 2d 974 (N.D. Cal. 2012)

Judge Alsup held that the structure, sequence, and organization of Java APIs are not copyrightable, ruling that Google's use of Java API declarations in Android did not infringe Oracle's copyrights. The opinion was notable for Judge Alsup's statement that he had learned to write Java code to better understand the technical issues.

718 F. Supp. 2d 514 (S.D.N.Y. 2010)

Granted summary judgment to YouTube on Viacom's billion-dollar copyright infringement claim, holding that YouTube was protected by the DMCA safe harbor for user-uploaded content. Found that YouTube did not have actual knowledge of specific infringing videos and responded expeditiously to takedown notices.

438 F. Supp. 2d 754 (E.D. Mich. 2006)

Judge Anna Diggs Taylor ruled the NSA's warrantless wiretapping program unconstitutional, finding violations of the First and Fourth Amendments and the separation of powers. The first judicial ruling against the Bush administration's Terrorist Surveillance Program, though later vacated on standing grounds.

833 F. Supp. 2d 394 (S.D.N.Y. 2012)

Struck down Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage as between a man and a woman for federal purposes. Found that DOMA violated the Equal Protection Clause by denying federal benefits to legally married same-sex couples. Affirmed by the Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor.

559 F. Supp. 3d 898 (N.D. Cal. 2021)

Found Apple violated California's Unfair Competition Law by prohibiting developers from directing users to alternative payment methods, but ruled Apple is not a monopolist under federal antitrust law. Judge Gonzalez Rogers issued an injunction requiring Apple to allow links to external payment systems in the App Store.

411 F. Supp. 3d 658 (N.D. Cal. 2019)

Found Qualcomm's licensing practices violated antitrust law by maintaining a monopoly in certain modem chip markets through its 'no license, no chips' policy. Judge Koh ordered Qualcomm to renegotiate its licensing agreements, though the decision was later reversed by the Ninth Circuit.

769 F.3d 224 (M.D.N.C. 2016)

Struck down North Carolina's omnibus voting law (HB 589), finding that provisions including strict photo ID requirements, reduced early voting, and elimination of same-day registration were enacted with discriminatory intent targeting African American voters 'with almost surgical precision.' A landmark voting rights decision.

No. 17-cv-480 (E.D.N.Y. 2017)

Issued the first nationwide emergency stay blocking enforcement of President Trump's initial travel ban executive order. Judge Ann Donnelly found that petitioners had a strong likelihood of success on their claims that the executive order violated due process, and that removal of individuals with valid visas would cause irreparable harm.

No. 20-cv-3010 (D.D.C. 2024)

Judge Amit Mehta found Google liable for maintaining an illegal monopoly in the general search and search advertising markets. The court determined that Google's exclusive default search agreements with Apple and other device manufacturers foreclosed competition and maintained Google's dominant market position. The largest tech antitrust ruling since United States v. Microsoft.

217 F. Supp. 3d 1224 (D. Or. 2016)

Denied the government's motion to dismiss a climate change lawsuit brought by youth plaintiffs, finding they had standing to sue and stated a viable claim that the government's affirmative actions promoting fossil fuels violated their substantive due process right to a climate system capable of sustaining human life. The case became a landmark in climate litigation.

No. 17-cv-1002 (W.D. Tex. 2017)

Partially blocked Texas SB 4 ('show me your papers' law), which required local law enforcement to cooperate with federal immigration authorities. The court enjoined provisions that would punish officials who adopted sanctuary city policies, finding they likely violated the First and Fourth Amendments.

No. 13-cv-501 (S.D. Ohio 2013)

Ordered Ohio to recognize the marriage of a same-sex couple legally married in Maryland on a death certificate. Judge Timothy Black found Ohio's refusal violated the Due Process Clause, beginning the litigation that would reach the Supreme Court as Obergefell v. Hodges.

No. 23-cv-11195 (S.D.N.Y. 2023)

The New York Times filed a landmark copyright infringement lawsuit against Microsoft and OpenAI, alleging that large language models were trained on millions of copyrighted articles without authorization. The case raises foundational questions about fair use, AI training data, and the future of journalism in the age of generative artificial intelligence.

No. 18-cv-1039 (D.P.R. 2018)

Addressed FEMA's response to Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico, examining allegations of inadequate disaster relief and disparate treatment of U.S. territories compared to states. The case raised important questions about federal obligations to territories under the Stafford Act and equal protection.

645 F. Supp. 2d 587 (W.D. Tex. 2009)

Upheld the University of Texas at Austin's race-conscious admissions program, finding it satisfied strict scrutiny under Grutter v. Bollinger. The case was appealed twice to the Supreme Court, which ultimately upheld the program in Fisher II (2016) before affirmative action was struck down entirely in Students for Fair Admissions (2023).

930 F. Supp. 2d 1064 (N.D. Cal. 2013)

Struck down the FBI's use of National Security Letters and their accompanying gag orders as unconstitutional prior restraints on speech. Judge Illston found that the nondisclosure requirements violated the First Amendment by preventing recipients from revealing they had received an NSL, with no meaningful judicial review.

550 F. Supp. 3d 347 (S.D.W. Va. 2021)

Preliminarily enjoined West Virginia's ban on transgender girls participating in girls' school sports, finding the plaintiff likely to succeed on her claim that the law violated the Equal Protection Clause. One of the first federal rulings on transgender student athlete participation bans, examining the intersection of Title IX and equal protection.

682 F. Supp. 3d 308 (S.D.N.Y. 2023)

Held that Ripple's XRP token is not inherently a security under the Howey test but that institutional sales of XRP constituted unregistered securities offerings. Found that programmatic sales on exchanges did not satisfy the Howey test because buyers did not know they were buying from Ripple. A landmark ruling in cryptocurrency regulation.

No. 19-cv-349 (W.D. Tex. 2023)

Challenged the ATF's rule classifying bump stocks as machine guns under the National Firearms Act. The case raised questions about the scope of executive agency authority to reinterpret criminal statutes and whether bump stocks meet the statutory definition of a machine gun. Later resolved by the Supreme Court in Garland v. Cargill (2024).

335 F. Supp. 3d 1156 (N.D. Cal. 2018)

Dismissed claims against Google and YouTube arising from terrorist attacks in Paris, holding that Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act immunized Google from liability for ISIS recruitment videos hosted on YouTube. The court also found that YouTube's recommendation algorithms fell within Section 230's protection.

No. 22-cv-1564 (D.D.C. 2023)

Held that works generated entirely by artificial intelligence without human authorship cannot be registered for copyright protection. Judge Howell ruled that the Copyright Act requires human authorship, and a work autonomously created by an AI system lacks the human creative input necessary for copyright. A foundational ruling on AI and intellectual property.

98 F. Supp. 797 (D. Kan. 1951)

The three-judge panel initially ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that segregated schools did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment under Plessy v. Ferguson, though the court made crucial findings of fact that segregation had a detrimental effect on Black children. These findings of fact were relied upon by the Supreme Court in its reversal.

467 F. Supp. 990 (W.D. Wis. 1979)

Issued a prior restraint preventing The Progressive magazine from publishing an article describing how to build a hydrogen bomb. The court found that publication could cause irreparable harm to national security. The case was mooted when the information was published elsewhere, but it remains a significant First Amendment prior restraint case.

5 Cal.3d 584 (1971)

Held that California's public school financing system, which relied heavily on local property taxes, violated the Equal Protection Clause by creating substantial disparities in per-pupil spending between wealthy and poor school districts. Led to significant school finance reform in California.

43 Cal.4th 757 (2008)

Held that California's statutory ban on same-sex marriage violated the state constitution's equal protection and privacy guarantees. Made California the second state to legalize same-sex marriage through judicial decision. The ruling was subsequently overridden by Proposition 8.

13 Cal.3d 804 (1975)

Adopted the doctrine of pure comparative negligence in California, replacing the contributory negligence rule. Under this system, a plaintiff's damages are reduced by their percentage of fault, rather than being completely barred. Transformed tort law in California and influenced other states to adopt comparative fault systems.

6 Cal.3d 628 (1972)

Held that the death penalty constituted cruel or unusual punishment under the California Constitution, temporarily abolishing capital punishment in the state. The decision led to a constitutional amendment by voters reinstating the death penalty, demonstrating the tension between judicial interpretation and popular will.

777 S.W.2d 391 (Tex. 1989)

Unanimously held that the Texas school finance system violated the state constitution's mandate for 'an efficient system of public free schools.' Found that the wide disparities between property-rich and property-poor districts denied equal educational opportunity. Led to multiple rounds of school finance reform.

164 S.W.3d 637 (Tex. 2005)

Addressed the constitutionality of Texas's Sexually Violent Predator Act, establishing the standard of evidence required for civil commitment of sex offenders beyond their criminal sentences. Balanced public safety against individual due process rights under the state constitution.

550 S.W.3d 586 (Tex. 2018)

Struck down a City of Laredo ordinance banning single-use plastic bags, holding that the Texas Solid Waste Disposal Act preempted local governments from regulating containers used for solid waste removal. Established significant limits on home-rule cities' regulatory authority over environmental matters.

19 S.W.3d 346 (Tex. 2000)

Established the standard for judicial bypass of parental consent requirements for minors seeking abortions in Texas. The court defined the 'mature and sufficiently well informed' standard that trial courts must apply when determining whether a minor may obtain an abortion without parental notification.

68 N.Y.2d 96 (1986)

Established New York's standard for self-defense, holding that the use of deadly force must be judged by an objective reasonable person standard, not the purely subjective belief of the defendant. The 'Subway Vigilante' case involving Bernhard Goetz shaped self-defense law nationwide.

7 N.Y.3d 338 (2006)

Upheld New York's statutory definition of marriage as between a man and a woman, finding no state constitutional violation. Applied rational basis review and found that the legislature could rationally decide to limit marriage to opposite-sex couples. Later mooted by New York's Marriage Equality Act (2011) and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015).

100 N.Y.2d 893 (2003)

Held that New York State's school funding system violated the Education Article of the state constitution by failing to provide students in New York City with the opportunity for a sound basic education. Ordered the state to determine the actual cost of providing adequate education and reform its funding formula.

3 N.Y.3d 88 (2004)

Struck down New York's death penalty statute, finding that the deadlock instruction given to juries during the penalty phase was unconstitutional under the state constitution because it created an unacceptable risk that jurors would impose death to avoid a hung jury. Effectively ended the death penalty in New York.

772 So.2d 1243 (Fla. 2000)

Ordered a statewide manual recount of undervotes in the 2000 presidential election, finding that the lower court had applied too strict a standard. The Florida Supreme Court's decision was reversed by the U.S. Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore four days later, effectively ending the election dispute.

945 So.2d 1246 (Fla. 2006)

Decertified the largest class action in history against tobacco companies while preserving jury findings on the defendants' conduct. Created the 'Engle progeny' framework allowing individual plaintiffs to rely on the original jury's common findings in subsequent individual lawsuits, spawning thousands of individual tobacco cases in Florida courts.

132 So.3d 786 (Fla. 2014)

Approved the ballot language for a proposed constitutional amendment legalizing medical marijuana in Florida. Found the ballot title and summary gave voters fair notice of the amendment's chief purpose and were not misleading, allowing the initiative to proceed to the 2014 general election.

202 So.3d 40 (Fla. 2016)

On remand from the U.S. Supreme Court, held that Florida's death penalty sentencing scheme was unconstitutional because it allowed a judge rather than jury to find the facts necessary to impose a death sentence. Required that all facts supporting a death sentence must be found unanimously by the jury beyond a reasonable doubt.

440 Mass. 309 (2003)

Held that barring same-sex couples from civil marriage violated the Massachusetts Constitution's guarantees of individual liberty and equality. Made Massachusetts the first U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage. Chief Justice Marshall wrote that the state failed to identify any constitutionally adequate reason for denying civil marriage to same-sex couples.

481 Mass. 352 (2019)

Upheld Michelle Carter's involuntary manslaughter conviction for encouraging Conrad Roy's suicide through text messages. The court held that Carter's conduct in pressuring Roy to resume his suicide attempt and failing to call for help after she knew he was dying constituted wanton and reckless conduct causing death. A landmark case on criminal liability for suicide encouragement.

415 Mass. 545 (1993)

Held that the state has a constitutional duty to provide an adequate education to all children and that the existing school funding system failed to meet this duty. Identified seven capabilities that constitute an adequate education under the Massachusetts Constitution's education clause.

No. SUCR2013-10363 (Mass. Super. 2013)

Addressed the massive scandal involving chemist Annie Dookhan, who falsified drug test results at a state crime laboratory. The SJC ultimately dismissed over 21,000 drug convictions tainted by Dookhan's misconduct, the largest dismissal of convictions in American history, establishing procedures for identifying and remedying wrongful convictions from forensic misconduct.

62 N.J. 473 (1973)

Held that New Jersey's system of funding public schools primarily through local property taxes violated the state constitution's requirement to provide a 'thorough and efficient' education. Led to multiple rounds of school funding reform legislation and the landmark Abbott v. Burke line of cases.

119 N.J. 287 (1990)

Held that the state's school funding system was unconstitutional as applied to 28 urban districts (designated as 'Abbott districts'), requiring the state to fund these districts at the level of the wealthiest suburban districts. Led to decades of litigation and billions in additional education funding.

188 N.J. 415 (2006)

Held that same-sex couples are entitled to the same rights and benefits as heterosexual married couples under the state constitution, but left it to the legislature to determine whether to call such unions 'marriages' or 'civil unions.' Led to New Jersey's civil union law and eventually marriage equality.

214 N.J. 564 (2013)

Held that cell phone location data is protected under the New Jersey Constitution and law enforcement must obtain a warrant before tracking a suspect's location through cell phone records. Predated and anticipated the U.S. Supreme Court's similar holding in Carpenter v. United States.

179 Ill.2d 367 (1997)

Struck down Illinois's tort reform statute capping noneconomic damages in personal injury cases as a violation of the state constitution's separation of powers, right to a remedy, and right to a jury trial. Held that the legislature cannot establish a cap on compensatory damages that usurps the jury's role.

2013 IL 112116 (2013)

Struck down Illinois's ban on carrying firearms outside the home, finding it violated the Second Amendment as incorporated against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Led to the adoption of concealed carry legislation in Illinois, the last state in the nation to allow concealed carry.

2014 IL 114852 (2014)

Struck down the Illinois eavesdropping statute, which criminalized the recording of any conversation without all-party consent, as an unconstitutional restriction on free speech. Found the law overly broad because it criminalized recording public officials performing public duties in public places.

237 Ill.2d 217 (2010)

Struck down the medical malpractice cap on noneconomic damages enacted as part of Illinois tort reform, holding that the cap violated the separation of powers clause of the Illinois Constitution. Reaffirmed Best v. Taylor Machine Works and the role of juries in determining damages.

170 A.3d 414 (Pa. 2017)

Reinstated a challenge to Pennsylvania's school funding system, holding that the Education Clause creates enforceable rights and the political question doctrine does not bar judicial review of school funding adequacy. Led to a landmark 2023 trial court ruling finding the system unconstitutional.

502 A.2d 114 (Pa. 1985)

Held that the Pennsylvania Constitution's equal rights amendment required the state to fund medically necessary abortions under its Medicaid program, going further than the U.S. Supreme Court's holding in Harris v. McRae. Demonstrated how state constitutions can provide broader rights than the federal constitution.

83 A.3d 901 (Pa. 2013)

Struck down key provisions of Act 13, which preempted local zoning of oil and gas operations including fracking. The plurality opinion revived Pennsylvania's Environmental Rights Amendment as a self-executing provision creating enforceable individual rights to clean air, water, and environmental preservation.

178 A.3d 737 (Pa. 2018)

Struck down Pennsylvania's 2011 congressional redistricting plan as an unconstitutional partisan gerrymander under the Free and Equal Elections Clause of the state constitution. The court imposed a new map for the 2018 elections, becoming a model for state-level challenges to partisan gerrymandering.

78 Ohio St.3d 193 (1997)

Held that Ohio's school funding system was unconstitutional because it was overly reliant on local property taxes, creating wide disparities between wealthy and poor districts. The court found the system violated the constitutional mandate to provide a 'thorough and efficient' system of common schools. Led to four consecutive rulings on school funding.

80 Ohio St.3d 234 (1997)

On remand from the U.S. Supreme Court, held under the Ohio Constitution that officers must inform motorists they are free to leave before requesting consent to search during a traffic stop. Provided broader Fourth Amendment protections under the state constitution than the federal standard established by the U.S. Supreme Court.

114 Ohio St.3d 386 (2007)

Addressed separation of powers in election administration, ruling on the authority of the Secretary of State versus the General Assembly in setting election procedures. Established important principles about the distribution of election administration powers under the Ohio Constitution.

82 Ohio St.3d 16 (1998)

Held that the Ohio Constitution provides greater protection against warrantless searches of automobiles than the Fourth Amendment. Rejected the federal automobile exception and required police to obtain a warrant before searching a vehicle unless exigent circumstances exist beyond mere mobility of the vehicle.

173 Wash.2d 477 (2012)

Held that the State of Washington was failing to meet its constitutional 'paramount duty' to amply fund basic education for all children. The court retained jurisdiction to oversee compliance, eventually holding the legislature in contempt and imposing a $100,000-per-day sanction. A landmark in education funding litigation.

158 Wash.2d 1 (2006)

Upheld Washington's Defense of Marriage Act, finding no state constitutional right to same-sex marriage under rational basis review. The plurality deferred to the legislature on marriage definition. Later mooted when Washington voters approved same-sex marriage by referendum in 2012 and by Obergefell v. Hodges.

192 Wash.2d 1 (2018)

Unanimously held that Washington's death penalty was unconstitutional because it was imposed in an arbitrary and racially biased manner, violating the state constitution's prohibition on cruel punishment. Made Washington the 20th state to abolish capital punishment.

106 Wash.2d 54 (1986)

Established a six-factor test for determining when to interpret the Washington Constitution as providing greater protections than the federal Constitution. The 'Gunwall factors' became a nationally influential framework for independent state constitutional analysis.

270 Ga. 327 (1998)

Struck down Georgia's sodomy statute under the state constitution's right to privacy, holding that the state has no business regulating private, consensual sexual conduct between adults. Georgia's sodomy law had been upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), but the state court found broader protections in the state constitution.

272 Ga. 590 (2000)

Addressed medical malpractice statute of limitations issues under Georgia law, establishing important principles about when the statute begins to run in cases involving delayed discovery of medical negligence. Balanced patient rights against the need for finality in medical malpractice litigation.

282 Ga. 512 (2007)

Addressed the standard for educational adequacy under the Georgia Constitution, examining whether public school students have a state constitutional right to an adequate education that is judicially enforceable. Established the framework for education funding challenges in Georgia.

299 Ga. 575 (2016)

Addressed the intersection of religious liberty and land use regulation, examining whether a city's denial of a conditional use permit for a religious school violated the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA) and the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment.

440 Mich. 15 (1992)

Struck down Michigan's mandatory life sentence without parole for possession of 650 grams or more of cocaine as cruel or unusual punishment under the state constitution. Found that the mandatory sentence was so disproportionate to the offense that it violated the Michigan Constitution's prohibition on cruel or unusual punishment.

834 F.3d 696 (6th Cir. 2016)

Found Michigan's Sex Offender Registration Act (SORA) unconstitutional as applied retroactively. The court held that SORA's onerous requirements, including geographic exclusion zones and in-person reporting, constituted punishment rather than a civil regulatory scheme, violating the Ex Post Facto Clause when applied to offenders convicted before the amendments.

508 Mich. 520 (2021)

Upheld Michigan's Independent Citizens Redistricting Commission, which was created by a 2018 ballot initiative to end partisan gerrymandering. The court rejected challenges to the commission's constitutionality and its adopted maps, affirming the citizens' power to reform the redistricting process.

505 Mich. 429 (2020)

Held that a county's retention of surplus proceeds from a tax-foreclosure sale constituted an unconstitutional taking without just compensation under both the Michigan and U.S. Constitutions. When a county sells a property for more than the tax debt owed, the surplus belongs to the former owner. Later echoed by the U.S. Supreme Court in Tyler v. Hennepin County.

No. 6163 (Va. Cir. Ct. 1959)

The Virginia trial court convicted Richard and Mildred Loving of violating Virginia's Racial Integrity Act by marrying across racial lines. Judge Bazile wrote that 'Almighty God created the races' and 'did not intend for the races to mix.' The conviction was upheld by the Virginia Supreme Court before being overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court.

274 Va. 24 (2007)

Held that Virginia's anti-spam statute, which criminalized the transmission of unsolicited bulk email, was unconstitutionally overbroad under the First Amendment because it prohibited the anonymous transmission of all bulk email, not just fraudulent or deceptive messages. Struck down one of the first state laws targeting spam email.

No. 211061 (Va. 2023)

Held that a teacher who was fired for refusing to use a transgender student's preferred pronouns could proceed with his claims under the Virginia Constitution's free speech and free exercise of religion protections. Found that the Virginia Constitution provides broad speech protections that may exceed those of the First Amendment.

292 Va. 320 (2016)

Struck down Governor McAuliffe's blanket executive order restoring voting rights to over 200,000 convicted felons, holding that the Virginia Constitution requires an individualized assessment of each felon's case. The Governor subsequently restored rights on an individual basis.

370 P.3d 272 (Colo. App. 2015)

Upheld a Colorado Civil Rights Commission ruling that a bakery violated the Colorado Anti-Discrimination Act by refusing to create a custom wedding cake for a same-sex couple. The U.S. Supreme Court later reversed on narrow grounds in Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (2018), finding the Commission showed hostility toward religion.

218 P.3d 358 (Colo. 2009)

Reversed dismissal of a school funding lawsuit, holding that Colorado's Education Clause creates a judicially enforceable right to a 'thorough and uniform' system of public schools. Established that courts can evaluate the adequacy of the state's school funding system, though the plaintiffs ultimately lost on the merits.

No. 19SC878 (Colo. 2021)

Addressed the standard for ineffective assistance of counsel claims in Colorado, examining when defense counsel's failure to investigate or present certain evidence constitutes constitutionally deficient performance. Applied the Strickland framework under the Colorado Constitution.

196 P.3d 238 (Colo. 2008)

Upheld the constitutionality of Colorado's hospital provider fee under the Taxpayer's Bill of Rights (TABOR), holding that the fee was an enterprise fee rather than a tax subject to voter approval. The decision addressed the intersection of TABOR's strict fiscal limitations and the state's ability to fund healthcare programs.

293 Or. 402 (1982)

Established that Oregon's free speech protections are broader than the First Amendment, requiring courts to analyze speech restrictions under the state constitution's original meaning rather than federal balancing tests. Created the framework for Oregon's distinctively protective approach to free expression.

338 Or. 376 (2005)

Upheld Oregon's Death with Dignity Act against challenges under the state constitution. The court found that the Act's safeguards were constitutionally sufficient and that the state's interest in preventing suicide did not extend to prohibiting terminally ill patients from choosing a dignified death.

No. A168337 (Or. App. 2020)

Addressed the constitutionality of municipal regulations on homelessness and urban camping. Examined whether a city's enforcement of anti-camping ordinances against homeless individuals violated the state constitution when insufficient shelter alternatives were available.

345 Or. 596 (2009)

Held that the Oregon Constitution does not guarantee a specific level of school funding and that school funding adequacy is a political question not suitable for judicial resolution. Distinguished Oregon's approach from states that have found judicially enforceable rights to adequate education.

505 N.W.2d 299 (Minn. 1993)

Held that the Minnesota Education Clause creates a fundamental right to a general and uniform system of public schools but that the school funding system did not violate this right. Established a deferential standard of review for legislative education funding decisions under the state constitution.

742 N.W.2d 163 (Minn. 2007)

Held that the Minnesota Constitution requires a warrant for blood draws in DWI cases, providing greater protection than the Fourth Amendment. Rejected the argument that implied consent laws create an exception to the warrant requirement for blood alcohol testing.

857 N.W.2d 334 (Minn. 2014)

Addressed the reliability of forensic evidence in criminal trials, establishing standards for the admissibility of arson investigation testimony. The court examined whether fire investigation methods met the requirements for scientific evidence under Frye-Mack standards.

916 N.W.2d 1 (Minn. 2018)

Held that parents of school-age children in Minneapolis and St. Paul had standing to challenge Minnesota's open enrollment program as contributing to racial segregation in public schools. Recognized that the Education Clause and Equal Protection Clause of the Minnesota Constitution may require addressing racial isolation in public education.

2005 MT 69 (2005)

Held that Montana's school funding system violated the state constitution's mandate for a 'quality' public education. Found that the legislature had failed to adequately define or fund the educational quality required by the constitution and ordered the legislature to remedy the system.

2011 MT 328 (2011)

Upheld Montana's century-old Corrupt Practices Act limiting corporate campaign spending, directly conflicting with the U.S. Supreme Court's Citizens United decision. The Montana court found the state's unique history of copper king corruption justified the law. Reversed per curiam by the U.S. Supreme Court in American Tradition Partnership v. Bullock.

2008 MT 296 (2008)

Held that Montana's constitutional right to privacy protects the right of adults to use marijuana in the privacy of their homes, finding the state's criminal prohibition unconstitutional as applied. The ruling relied on Montana's explicit constitutional privacy guarantee, which is broader than any federal analog.

No. CDV-2020-307 (Mont. 1st Dist. 2023)

Held that Montana's policy of promoting fossil fuel development without considering climate impacts violated the state constitution's right to a clean and healthful environment. The first U.S. climate trial resulting in a ruling that a state violated constitutional environmental rights. Young plaintiffs successfully argued their right to a stable climate.

346 N.C. 336 (1997)

Held that every child in North Carolina has a right to a 'sound basic education' under the state constitution. Defined the components of a sound basic education and held the state responsible for ensuring sufficient resources. Led to decades of continuing litigation over implementation and compliance.

No. 18-CVS-014001 (N.C. Super. 2019)

Struck down North Carolina's state legislative districts as unconstitutional partisan gerrymanders under the state constitution's Free Elections Clause. After the U.S. Supreme Court in Rucho v. Common Cause held partisan gerrymandering claims non-justiciable under the federal constitution, this state-level ruling provided an alternative avenue for reform.

370 N.C. 399 (2018)

Addressed racial bias in jury selection under the Racial Justice Act. The court examined the use of peremptory challenges to remove African American jurors and established standards for evaluating Batson challenges under both the federal and North Carolina constitutions.

380 N.C. 317 (2022)

Struck down North Carolina's congressional redistricting maps as unconstitutional partisan gerrymanders under the state constitution. The case was the basis for Moore v. Harper at the U.S. Supreme Court, which rejected the independent state legislature theory. The North Carolina Supreme Court later reversed itself after a change in its partisan composition.

74 Haw. 530 (1993)

Held that Hawaii's prohibition on same-sex marriage constituted sex discrimination under the state constitution's Equal Protection Clause and was subject to strict scrutiny. The first state high court ruling favorable to same-sex marriage, it prompted a nationwide backlash including the federal Defense of Marriage Act and state constitutional amendments.

127 Haw. 206 (2012)

Held that Hawaii's constitutional right to privacy protects the personal use of marijuana by adults in their homes, striking down the state's prohibition as applied to private, personal use. Found that the state failed to demonstrate a compelling interest sufficient to override the fundamental privacy right.

94 Haw. 97 (2000)

Established the public trust doctrine as a constitutional mandate for water resource management in Hawaii. Held that all water resources are held in trust for the benefit of the people and that the state has an affirmative duty to protect water resources. A landmark environmental and indigenous rights decision.

127 Haw. 185 (2012)

Addressed the fiduciary obligations of the Hawaiian Homes Commission to native Hawaiian beneficiaries under the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act. Held that the Commission has trust duties that are enforceable in court and that beneficiaries have standing to challenge failures to administer homestead lands in their interest.

289 Conn. 135 (2008)

Held that Connecticut's civil union law, which provided same-sex couples with benefits equivalent to marriage but not the marriage designation, violated the state constitution's equal protection guarantee. Found that sexual orientation is a quasi-suspect classification requiring intermediate scrutiny. Made Connecticut the third state to legalize same-sex marriage.

238 Conn. 1 (1996)

Held that the severe racial and ethnic isolation in Hartford public schools violated the Connecticut Constitution's education and equal protection provisions. Required the state to remedy de facto school segregation even in the absence of intentional state action. Led to the creation of interdistrict magnet schools and a voluntary integration program.

222 Conn. 672 (1992)

Established a six-factor framework for determining when the Connecticut Constitution provides greater protection than the federal Constitution. The 'Geisler factors' include the text, history, and case law of the state provision, as well as federal precedent, sister state decisions, and policy considerations. Became an influential model for independent state constitutional analysis.

172 Conn. 615 (1977)

Held that the state's system of financing public education through local property taxes created unconstitutional inequalities in educational opportunity. Found that education is a fundamental right under the Connecticut Constitution and that wealth-based disparities in school funding violate equal protection. One of the earliest and most influential school funding decisions.