National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

McCulloch v. Maryland

17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819)

Upheld the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States under the Necessary and Proper Clause and held that states cannot tax federal institutions. Chief Justice Marshall established a broad interpretation of congressional power, declaring that the federal government possesses implied powers beyond those enumerated in the Constitution.

Gibbons v. Ogden

22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)

Held that the Commerce Clause grants Congress broad power to regulate interstate commerce, including navigation. States cannot grant monopolies that interfere with congressionally authorized interstate trade. Established the foundation for federal regulatory power over economic activity crossing state lines.

Lochner v. New York

198 U.S. 45 (1905)

Struck down a New York law limiting bakery workers to a 60-hour work week, holding it violated the Fourteenth Amendment's protection of liberty of contract. Inaugurated the 'Lochner era' of aggressive judicial review of economic regulations, which lasted until the late 1930s. Now widely criticized as judicial overreach.

Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States

379 U.S. 241 (1964)

Upheld Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited racial discrimination in places of public accommodation. The Court ruled that Congress had authority under the Commerce Clause to prohibit racial discrimination in hotels and motels serving interstate travelers.

Griswold v. Connecticut

381 U.S. 479 (1965)

Struck down a Connecticut statute criminalizing the use of contraceptives by married couples. Justice Douglas, writing for the majority, held that the Bill of Rights contains penumbras and emanations creating a constitutional right to privacy. This right to marital privacy became the foundation for subsequent decisions including Roe v. Wade.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Gibbons v. Ogden

Chevron v. NRDC